Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Eyridiki Sellou | Dec 23, 2023
Table of Content
Summary
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (also known by the Castilianization of his name as Jean-Jacques Rousseau) (Geneva, June 28, 1712 - Ermenonville, July 2, 1778) was a French-speaking Swiss polymath. He was at the same time writer, pedagogue, philosopher, musician, botanist and naturalist, and although he was defined as an enlightened, he presented deep contradictions that separated him from the main representatives of the Enlightenment, earning for example the fierce inquina of Voltaire and being considered one of the first writers of pre-Romanticism.
His ideas gave a Copernican twist to pedagogy by focusing it on the natural evolution of the child and on direct and practical subjects, and his political ideas greatly influenced the French Revolution and the development of republican theories.
He was critical of the political and philosophical thought developed by Hobbes and Locke. For him, political systems based on economic interdependence and self-interest lead to inequality, selfishness and ultimately to bourgeois society (a term he was one of the first to use). He incorporated into political philosophy incipient concepts such as the general will, and alienation. His legacy as a radical and revolutionary thinker is probably best expressed in his two most famous phrases, one contained in The Social Contract, "Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains", the other, present in his Emilium, or Of Education, "Man is good by nature".
Rousseau befriended Denis Diderot in 1742, and would later write about Diderot's romantic problems in his Confessions. During the period of the French Revolution, Rousseau was the most popular philosopher among the Jacobin members. He was buried as a national hero in the Pantheon in Paris along with Voltaire in 1794, 16 years after his death.
The Rousseau family came from French Huguenots and settled in Geneva about a hundred years before Isaac Rousseau (Geneva, 1672-Nyon, 1747) and Suzanne Bernard (Geneva, 1673-1712), daughter of the Calvinist Jacques Bernard, had the future writer Jean-Jacques. Nine days after giving birth, Suzanne died and the little Rousseau considered his paternal uncles as his second parents, since he spent a lot of time with them since he was very young and they were the ones who took care of him.
When Rousseau was 10 years old (1722), his father, a rather cultured watchmaker, had to go into exile because of an unfounded accusation and his son was left in the care of his uncle Samuel, although he had already taken from him a great love of reading and a patriotic feeling of admiration for the government of the Republic of Geneva that Jean-Jacques retained all his life. With this family he enjoyed an education that he would consider ideal, qualifying this period as the happiest of his life, and he read Bossuet, Fontenelle, La Bruyère, Molière and above all Plutarch, from whom he internalized important notions about the history of Republican Rome; in his Confessions, written towards the end of his life, he will say that this author was his favorite reading; he will also recommend in his Émile the reading of Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe. Together with his cousin, Rousseau was sent as a pupil to the Calvinist Lambercier's house for two years (1722-1724). Upon his return in 1725, he worked as an apprentice watchmaker and, later, with a master engraver (though without completing his apprenticeship), with whom he developed enough experience to make a living from these trades occasionally.
At the age of 16 (1728) he began to wander and left his hometown. After wandering for some time and working in the most disparate trades, on the verge of marginality, he abjured Calvinism and embraced Catholicism, which he later also renounced (he would later expound his deistic ideas on a natural religion in his Profession of Faith of the Savoyard Vicar) and settled in Annecy, being tutored by Madame de Warens, an enlightened Catholic lady without children, thirteen years older than him, who helped him in his discontinuous education and in his love for music, and also looked for different jobs for him. In Rousseau's eyes, she would be the mother he had lost and, from 1733, a lover. He stayed six weeks in 1737 in Montpellier due to a serious illness, and upon his return, Madame Warens got him the position of tutor in Lyon for the children of the brother of two famous enlightened writers, Gabriel Bonnot de Mably (he also became friends with Fontenelle), Diderot (who signed him as a collaborator in musical matters for his Encyclopédie, 1751-1772, and with whom he would eventually fall out) and Marivaux (who corrected his one-act play Narcissus or the Lover of Himself, which he premiered in 1752). He then forged a character of "solitary stroller", a lover of nature. But, always discontented, Rousseau worked as a journalist and in many other odd jobs. In 1742 he presented an innovative system of musical notation to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris, with little success (his system was only interested in melody and not in harmony, and besides, a similar system had already been invented sixty-five years earlier by the monk Souhaitti), and the following year he published his Dissertation on Modern Music (1743), in which he criticized very harshly the French music, for him far inferior to the Italian one. He met Madame Dupin, of whom he would later become secretary; also in that year he was appointed secretary to the inept French ambassador to the Republic of Venice, Pierre-François de Montaigu, with whom he did not see eye to eye, to the point that the following year he was dismissed (1744).
In 1745 and already 33 years old, he returned to Paris, where he lived with Thérèse Levasseur, an illiterate dressmaker with whom he had five children and whom he convinced to give them to the hospice as they were born; he did so in 1746 with the first one. At first he said that he lacked the means to support a family, but later, in volume IX of his Confessions, he claimed to have done so in order to remove them from the harmful influence of his in-laws: "The thought of entrusting them to an uneducated family, to be educated even worse, made me tremble. The education of the hospice could not be worse than that".
At this time he came into contact with Voltaire, D'Alembert, Rameau and, again, with Diderot, and wrote his most famous works. When the Academy of Dijon proposed in 1749 a dissertation competition on the following question: "Whether the revival of the sciences and the arts has contributed to the improvement of manners", Rousseau won the following year with his Discours sur les sciences et les arts, answering no, since the arts and sciences in his opinion represent a cultural decadence.
But, in addition, the cultivation of the sciences and the arts was also responsible for the decline of morals, the lost innocence and the development of "luxury, dissolution and slavery". From this point on, he achieved a controversial and controversial celebrity; even the deposed king of Poland and Duke of Lorraine, Stanislaus I Leszczynski, tried to refute Rousseau with another speech. In 1751 he resigned from his post as secretary to Madame Dupin and devoted himself to copying musical scores to earn a living and in 1752 he successfully premiered in Fontainebleau, in the presence of King Louis XV, his one-act opera The Soothsayer of the People, daring to refuse an audience with the monarch himself. In 1754 he published his Discourse on political economy and abjured Catholicism, and the following year, in 1755, he published an even more important text, his Discourse on the origin and foundations of inequality among men, which he had submitted for another competition at the Academy of Dijon without winning a prize this time. This discourse displeased Voltaire and the Catholic Church alike, which accused him of denying original sin and adhering to the heresy of Pelagianism. Rousseau had sent a copy to Voltaire, then living in his native Geneva, and the latter replied that it was "written against the human race... never was so much intelligence deployed to want to turn us into beasts". It was the beginning of a growing enmity between these two enlightened men, whose second phase occurred when Voltaire published his Poem on the Lisbon disaster (1755), in which he unequivocally affirmed his pessimism and denied divine providence, to which the Genevan replied with a Letter on Providence (1756) in which he tried to refute him. Voltaire's response would be justly celebrated: his short novel Candide or Optimism. Voltaire's hatred festered even more when Rousseau printed his Letter to D'Alembert on Spectacles (1758), in which he declared (being himself a playwright) that the theater was one of the most pernicious products for society, generating luxury and immorality; moreover, he was extremely misogynistic when he wrote sentences like this one:
Voltaire had been obstinate in creating a theater in Geneva where he could present his plays and act in them, and this letter was the final straw for any possibility of ingratiating himself with Rousseau, who, for his part, was beginning to attend Parisian salons and criticize French music in the Querelle des Buffons with the support of the encyclopedists and his then close friend Frédéric-Melchior Grimm, with whom he shared the love of Madame d'Epinay.
The demands of his friends and his opinions distance him from them, Rousseau feels betrayed and attacked and leaves the Hermitage, a country house furnished for him by Mme. d'Epinay in 1756. He moved in that year to Mont Louis, also in the forests of Montmorency, and received a proposal to become the honorary librarian of Geneva, which he refused. In 1757 he fell passionately in love with Madame Sophie d'Houdetot, competing with her other lover, the poet and academic Jean François de Saint-Lambert, but their relationship became nothing more than platonic. To her he will address his Moral Letters (1757-1758), which remained unpublished until 1888. In 1758 he published his Letter to d'Alembert on spectacles and in 1761 his epistolary novel Julia, or the new Eloise.
1762 was a fundamental year in his literary creation, for he wrote a highly original play, Pygmalion, considered the creator of a new dramatic-musical genre, the melologue, which could only be performed in 1770, and published two major works: Emilio, or On Education, and The Social Contract, or Principles of Political Law. The first of these works was above all a full-fledged cannonade against traditional pedagogy and cultural and learned religions, not natural ones, which will have very important consequences in these disciplines; In pedagogy he made a Copernican turn that would be developed by another Swiss writer, Pestalozzi, centering education on the child and his mental evolution, and giving priority to practical subjects over theoretical and abstract ones, while in religious matters Rousseau proposed, despising theology as useless, a natural religion with a secondary and less important role than other practical disciplines; the second work was a well-founded criticism of the political principles of the Ancien Régime based on a question that became justly famous: "Man is born free, and yet wherever he goes he is in chains. Why this change?" In constitutional theory, unlike Thomas Hobbes and even more markedly than John Locke, Rousseau did not admit any restriction on individual rights and liberties: the man who does not enjoy complete freedom is not a man; he sketches a philosophical principle of wide future, alienation, as well as a political-legal one, the general will. The heterodox ideas expressed in these works make him tremendously unpopular, to the point that on June 9 the Parliament of Paris gives an order to arrest him for his Emilie; previously warned, Rousseau decided to take refuge in his native Switzerland, more specifically in Yverdon; There he learns that the Archbishop of Paris Christophe de Beaumont has also written a pastoral letter against his works; on June 19, the Canton of Geneva issues an arrest warrant for his works Emilien and Contrat social, and on July 10, he is expelled from Yverdon by the Canton of Bern; So he crosses the Jura mountains and takes refuge in Môtiers-Travers under the protection of Julie Emélie Willading, born Boy de la Tour (in 1763 he writes a Letter to Christophe de Beumont to defend himself from the persecution of the Catholic archbishop and then renounces his Geneva citizenship; in September 1764 he receives an offer from Pasquale di Paoli to draft a constitution for the short-lived Corsican Republic (1755-1769). Also in 1764 Voltaire published an anonymous pamphlet against Rousseau, The Sentiment of Citizens, in which he revealed the fate of his five children, given to the care of orphanages because Rousseau thought he would not be able to support them due to their economic conditions (this was his main justification in the Confessions):
Rousseau went to the trouble of refuting with medical reports his alleged syphilis and the unfounded allegation that he had killed his lover's mother, republishing the anonymous pamphlet with his notes in Paris, but concealing, however, the truth of the abandonment of his children. From that moment on he adopted as his motto Vitam impendere vero ("to dedicate one's life to the truth", Juvenal, satire IV), which he put before a publication he made in December, his Letters from the Mountain; But the Protestant clergy (especially the Calvinist pastor of Geneva Jean Sarasin) and Catholics were ranting against him and in 1765 his house in Môtiers was stoned by an angry mob; a few days later Rousseau decided to take refuge on the island of St. Peter, in Lake Bienne, in the house of a trustee of Bern; but he was also forced to leave there. Rousseau despairs for the first time and asks the Bernese authorities to imprison him anywhere, that he will not write anything more; but they do not imprison him and he settles in Bienne, where he receives above all the visit of various Englishmen (James Boswell...), because his two speeches and his three great books, the latter translated by William Kenrick, had been widely disseminated also in the English-speaking world. He received requests to travel to Prussia (from Marshal George Keith), to the United Kingdom (from David Hume) and even to Russia (from Cyril Razoumovsky).
Persecution was beginning to arouse in Rousseau a paranoia or persecutory mania to which he was already prone; moreover, he was seriously ill with bladder disease. So on January 4, 1766, with David Hume and Jean-Jacques de Luze, he set out for London. His friend Hume welcomed him and Thérèse in England, but the Swiss philosopher could not stand the city and Hume had to find the couple a country residence to his liking, and he found it in Chiswick; however, the enlightened Frenchman was often invited to other estates, such as Mundan House (Surrey) half a mile from Wotton Place, and especially Wootton Hall (they spent in England two agitated years (1765-1767), harassed by the opinion that most English people had of him: A mad, bad and dangerous man who lived in sin with Thérèse. Hume had to find trickery even to bring the capricious, whimsical and paranoid Frenchman to the Drury Lane theater; when he arrived at the show, his strange attire (Rousseau habitually dressed in the Armenian manner) caused an uproar and at the end of the performance he was taken to the great actor Garrick's coterie. Horace Walpole played a practical joke on him by writing him a false letter as if he were Frederick the Great of Prussia, Therèse cheated on him with Boswell, and Rousseau's dog, "Sultan", did nothing but run away and Rousseau spent the day complaining and protesting. In the end, Hume became fed up with Rousseau's messes, oddities (for example, refusing a secret pension from King George III of one hundred pounds that Hume had forced himself to get him and the Frenchman had approved at first) and paranoias (he thought that Hume had allied with Voltaire, d'Alembert, Diderot and other enemies of his to discredit him, taking this altercation even to the printing press, to which Hume also responded with a printout). In 1767, when he was 55 years old, he nevertheless received the pension of George III, but decided to return to France under the false name of Jean-Joseph Renou, when his burdened English friends had already realized that something was wrong with him, that he was disturbed. The prince of Conti put at his disposal a house in Trye-le Chateâu and his Dictionnaire de musique was published. But in 1768 he went to Lyon and Grenoble and on August 30 he married his beloved Thérèse in Bourgoin. In 1770 he was allowed to return officially with his name: but under the condition of not publishing anything else.
He finished his memoirs, the Confessions, in 1771, an attempt to resolve or at least bear witness to his tremendous contradictions, and devoted himself to living off his patrons and public readings of these memoirs. In 1772 Mme. d'Epinay, a writer who was his lover and Grimm's lover at the same time (which would provoke their enmity), scandalized by Rousseau's account of his relationship with her, asked the police to prohibit such readings, and that is what happened. In a somber state of mind, he withdraws definitively from the world. He began to write his Dialogues in 1772, but the damage caused by the violent attacks of Voltaire (who said that he used sentimentality and hypocrisy to prosper) as well as those of other characters of his time ended up finally removing him from public life without being able to take advantage of the fame and recognition of his work, which would inspire romanticism. He lengthened his Considerations on the Government of Poland and in the following years he worked on Letters on Botany to Madame Delessert (1771-1773), Rousseau judge of Jean-Jacques (1772-1776) and the opera Daphnis et Chloé (1774-1776). In 1776 he began to write his Ensoñaciones de un paseante solitario (1776-1778), whose writing remained unfinished because of his sudden death, when he was retired in Ermenonville by medical advice, of a heart attack in 1778, when he was 66 years old.
His remains rest in the Pantheon in Paris a few meters from Voltaire and the exact site is clearly marked by a commemorative bust. Several posthumous works appeared: in 1781 his Essay on the Origin of Languages and a continuation of the Emile, Émile et Sophie, ou les Solitaires, as well as the Confessions (1782-1789). The Moral Letters were not published until 1888.
Literary
Given his distance from the encyclopedists of the time and his confrontation with the Catholic Church, due to his polemic doctrines, his literary style changed. His autobiographical works made a fundamental change in European literature; to such an extent that he is considered a pre-romantic author or precursor of Romanticism. His most influential works were Julia, or the New Eloise (1761) and Emilio, or Of Education (1762), since they transformed ideas about the family.
Other very important works are The Social Contract and Discourse on the Origin of Inequality among Men.
Botanical
Rousseau discovered botany late, around the age of 65, enjoying herbalism, an activity that calmed him, after so many days of reflection, which made him tired and sad, as he himself wrote in the seventh Ensoñación del paseante solitario (Dreaming of the Solitary Stroller). Thus his Letters on Botany allowed him to continue a reflection on culture, in an immense sense, beginning with Émile, his treatise on education, and his romance Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse, where he questioned himself on the art of gardening.
Man, if he is denatured, if he lacks instincts, cannot contemplate nature, he only makes habitable and cultivable areas, denatured, "contoured in his own way" in "artificial countryside" where even if they can live, it is only in a poor country. And there are less and less possibilities of access to the natural "should be known and worthy of being admired .... Nature seems to be disordered to human eyes, and pass without attracting the gaze of the insensitive, and that in turn have disfigured ... There are those who love it and try to look for it and cannot find it" continues Rousseau in his novel, where he describes how Julie installs at the bottom of her garden a secret garden, playing with the pleasant and the useful in order to make a little walk reminiscent of pure nature: "It is true, she says that nature does everything, but under my direction, there will no longer be anyone to order it".
Rousseau describes the garden of the man who reconciles at the same time the humanist and the botanist, as a useful and pleasant aspect where he can be without visible artifice, neither French nor English: water, greenery, shade and plantings, as seen in nature, without using symmetry or aligning crops and borders. The man of taste "will not be disturbed to the point of his perception of beautiful perspectives: the taste of views only visible to very few".
The work to improve the soil and to make grafts will not return the natural taken from nature. In addition to the fact that it will not return, our urban civilization continues to spread catastrophically with consequences, but another destiny can be forced. And if the work of an orchard and of fields is a necessity for the man, the garden of "the man of taste" will work allowing to unburden oneself, to rest from moments of effort.
For Rousseau, melodies and the garden are of the order of the human, of perfectibility, imagination and simple passions. He speaks of a music of a melodic temporality, therefore there will be educational processes that allow humans to hope for a becoming "all that we can be" or to make nature not make us suffer.
Rousseau liked to offer small herbariums to his friends and acquaintances, and he himself assembled a personal herbarium consisting of up to 15 classifiers filled with sheets of specimens, some of which are now considered types. After Rousseau's death, his herbarium had different owners until 1953, when it was acquired by the French National Museum of Natural History, which included it in the collections of the Botanical Gallery, in the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, thus making it part of the French national herbarium, the largest in the world with almost 8 million specimens.
Rousseau was able to identify and name 21 new species (IPNI).
Jean Jacques Rousseau was more of a political philosopher, not a pedagogue; but, through his novel Emile, or Of Education, he promotes philosophical thoughts on education, this being one of his main contributions in the field of pedagogy. In this book, he exalts the goodness of man and nature while raising issues that he would later develop in The Social Contract. Rousseau conceives his paradigm of man in chains in Emile, or On Education. Just as in Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality among Men, in Emilium, or Of Education, he wants to remove the formation of man from his inquiry, "men, scattered among themselves, observe, imitate their industry, and thus rise to the instinct of the beasts; they feed equally on the majority." Rousseau creates a system of education that leaves man, or in this case the child, to live and develop in a corrupt and oppressed society. As the preliminary study of Emile, or Of Education, says: "assign to children more liberty and less empire, let them do more for themselves and demand less from others."
Emilio, or On Education
This educational philosophical novel, written in 1762, fundamentally describes and proposes a different perspective on education, which is applied in Emilie. Rousseau, starting from his idea that nature is good and that the child should learn for himself in it, wants the child to learn to do things, to have reasons to do things for himself. As Jurgen Oelkers, writer of the article Rousseau and the image of 'modern education' says, "Education must have its place within nature so that the child's potential can develop according to the rhythm of nature and not to the time of society." Rousseau believes that every man and child is good. Above all, he speculates that the humanity that poses an education based on a natural course would be a freer society. Sandro de Castro and Rosa Elena, in their article "Horizons of dialogue in Environmental Education: Contributions of Milton Santos, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Paulo Freire" say: "In writing Emilio, or On Education, Rousseau lays the foundation for an education capable of forming a true man, because before anything else, man must be formed.
Rousseau attacked the educational system through this novel, in which he presents that children should be educated through their interests and not by strict discipline.
The novel is divided into five parts. The first three are devoted to childhood, the fourth is devoted to adolescence, and the last deals with the education of Sofia, the ideal woman, and the paternal, political and moral life of Emilio.
From the mother's womb one can say that one is alive. Thus, as the child grows, according to Rousseau, he must of his own free will acquire knowledge. He says: "We are born capable of learning, but neither knowing nor knowing anything", just as he says that man's education begins at birth, on the basis of his own experiences and general acquisitions. Without realizing it, from the moment we are born we are free and by our own will we know what is pleasure, pain and rejection.
Rousseau also states that learning is very necessary, especially at this stage of life. Returning to his theme of freedom, Luiz Felipe Netto in the article "The notion of liberty in Emile Rousseau" says: "Rather, a child is free when he can achieve his will". He thinks that we should let the child manifest his will and curiosity for what surrounds him. That is to say, let the child touch, taste, use his sensory senses to learn.
In this section Rousseau says: "Nature formed children to be loved and assisted". He also says that if children listened to reason, they would not need to be educated. Children should be treated with gentleness and patience; he explains that the child should not be forced to ask for forgiveness, nor should punishment be imposed. The rule of doing good is the only moral virtue that should be imposed.
This section still refers to childhood, between the ages of twelve and thirteen. The body is still developing and so is natural curiosity. Rousseau says: "The child does not know something because you have told it to him, but because he has understood it himself",suggesting that the child is inspired by his will, that he is only given methods to awaken his interest and not his boredom. It is then that Rousseau begins to teach him to conserve, so that he has more moral rights.
He also states that the child should learn from the exchange of thoughts and ideas; he sees a social benefit in the child being able to integrate into society without being disturbed.
With this section begins adolescence. Rousseau states that "the child cannot put himself in the place of others, but once adolescence is reached, he can and does so: Emilio can at last be introduced into society" . Already in adolescence, Emilio has a better understanding of feelings, but also passions are exalted. Rousseau says that "Our passions are the principal instruments of our preservation", because for him, sex, passion and love are the product of a natural movement.
To form man from nature is not to make him savage, but not to let him rule himself. Also in this part, Emilio is exposed to religion, but he fails to see it as something meaningful to him.
Adolescence ends at the age of twenty, when Emilio and his fiancée Sofia are reaching maturity and married life.
Fernando Sánchez Dragó argues that Rousseau is the father of totalitarianism and Juan Manuel de Prada argues that he is the father of social engineering.
Considered a precursor of feminism, Mary Wollstonecraft was strongly criticized in her book Vindication of Women. Where she attributes complicity to the reprimand of women. According to Rousseau, education should prepare them for their future role as wives. According to Wollstonecraft, the aim of education "is to achieve character as a human being, regardless of the sex to which one belongs". She accepted Rousseau's views on the education of boys, but also said that "he and other writers had approached the subject of female education and conduct in such a way as to make women the most artificial and weakest characters in existence, and consequently the most useless members of society.
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